Emile Durkheims Theories on Suicide Essay -- Sociology Psychology Sui

Emile Durkheim's Theories on Suicide I chose to write about Durkheim's theories on suicide. Although I don’t completely agree with all of them, I will discuss what my text says they are and what I perceive them to be. Most of Durkheim’s work on suicide was published in his third book, Suicide. It was a very important book because it was a serious effort to establish empiricism in sociology. This empiricism would provide a sociological perspective on a phenomenon that was previously psychological and individualistic. He proposed three major forms of suicide, some with subdivisions. These three forms of suicide were egoistic, altruistic, and anomic. With egoistic suicide, Durkheim proposes that a person will commit suicide if they have too little interaction with society. He says that a person that does not feel like a part of society will not hold to the same norms, laws, or mores and will be more likely to elevate his value and ideas above that of the society. His studies show that people from smaller families, women more than men, and Protestants more than Catholics, will commit suicide. These are only a few of the criteria provided. For the most part, I agree with this. I would take it to believe that most people that interact with a larger group would be healthier. I only have one problem with the egoistic theory. I am confused as to whom it can apply to. Does a person have to acquire the feeling of belonging? Does a child that is deprived of interaction run a...

John Locke: the Revolution of Reason in the Age of Enlightenment Essay

For many people, particularly Americans, phrases like â€Å"inalienable rights,† â€Å"the pursuit of life and liberty,† and concepts such as religious tolerance, and separation of Church and State, are all too familiar. Many people are unaware, however, of the period, and the man, from which these ideas came. The â€Å"inalienable rights† and â€Å"pursuit of life and liberty†Ã¢â‚¬â€œwords straight out of the United States’ Declaration of Independence—were not written by Thomas Jefferson first. In fact, those words, and the philosophy behind them, precede Thomas Jefferson by approximately one hundred years. The preceding century, and the source of the ideas that formed the basis of the American Revolution, is known as the Age of Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment, or sometimes known more simply as, the Enlightenment, follows several ages of mankind in which the entire world, morally, socially, politically, and culturally, revolved around the Church. The Enlightenment is the period in which Western Civilization broke away from this tradition: The intellectual and philosophical developments of that age (and their impact in moral, social, and political reform) aspired toward more freedom for common people, based on self-governance, natural rights, natural law, central emphasis on liberty, individual rights, reason, and the principles of deism. These principles were a revolutionary departure from theocracy, oligarchy, aristocracy, and the divine right of kings. (â€Å"Age of Enlightenment†) Deism, as mentioned in the previous quote, is defined by Prof. Gerhard Rempel: â€Å"English deism†¦ emphasized an impersonal deity, natural religion and the common morality of all human beings. Deism was a logical outgrowth of scientific inquiry, rational faith in humanity, and the study of comparative religion. All religions could be reduced to worshipping God and a common sense moral code. There was a universal natural religion† (Rempel). In other words, deism is an extreme simplification of all religions according to the basic premise that every religion worships God, and serves as the foundation of several schools of religious tolerance, which proved to be the foundations of liberal thought, the founder of which, was John Locke; â€Å"†¦ Locke launched liberalism by tempering Hobbesian absolutism and clearly separating the realms of Church and State† (â€Å"John Locke†). As this passage demonstrates, the ideas of religious tolerance served as the foundation of separation of Church and State. Religious tolerance is one of many issues pursued and defended by one of the greatest philosophers and writers of the Age of Enlightenment: John Locke. The philosophies of John Locke owe their â€Å"immortality† largely to the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution increased access to information and lowered prices: â€Å"Increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the ‘social’ Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers and journals–‘media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes’† (â€Å"Age of Enlightenment†). The Industrial Revolution stemmed out of the Age of Enlightenment, due to the overwhelming infatuation with reason that took hold during that particular time. It is due to the sudden ease of obtaining works of literature, (which previously were very expensive and belonged only to the wealthy upper classes—the only literate members of society), that contemporary readers still know the name: John Locke. John Locke was the primary voice of the Enlightenment, even though he spent some of the most important years of his life and writing career in exile. While his works influenced writers like Voltaire and Rousseau, his influence on the rest of the world extends even farther. The words in the American Declaration of Independence–†inalienable rights,† â€Å"the pursuit of life and liberty†Ã¢â‚¬â€œare the words of John Locke. John Locke altered the course of history through his influence during the Age of Enlightenment in the 17th century. His theories regarding the sense of â€Å"self† changed the collective identity of the people during the Enlightenment, encouraging them to ask questions that, previously, had always been answered by the Church, and even more revolutionary—to seek out the answers to those questions themselves, with the use of reason. John Locke also held tremendous sway over the political world of the Enlightenment, which was fraught with civil war and unrest; John Locke’s writings on the role of the government in the lives of the people played a tremendous part in the Glorious Revolution and the shift of power from the King to Parliament. Finally, John Locke also revolutionized the people’s perception of God, and advocated powerfully for religious tolerance, proclaiming the ideas of deism, as mentioned before, which took hold and strongly influenced the principles of separation of Church and State. While Western Civilization still answered only to the King and the Church, John Locke was busily redefining the sense of â€Å"self,† which would be the foundation of all modern, independent thought. Independent thought was founded in Locke’s love for reason; â€Å"Locke was the first philosopher to define the self through a continuity of ‘consciousness. ‘ He also postulated that the mind was a ‘blank slate’ or ‘tabula rasa’; that is†¦ Locke maintained that people are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived by sense perception† (â€Å"John Locke†) In other words, John Locke’s love for reason is the primary way in which he argued that people can develop their own ideas, based on their own experiences, rather than propaganda from religious or political officials, who would try to control what the people would think. John Locke describes this in his work, the Conduct of Understanding: †¦ this is that which seems to me the proper and only measure of distinctions and divisions; which he that will conduct his understanding right must not look for in the acuteness of invention, nor the authority of writers, but will find only in the consideration of things themselves, whether he is led into it by his own meditations, or the information of books. (Locke 263) This passage from Locke’s text describes the importance of the independence of the thinker from writing that would try to control thought. Locke makes a distinction between â€Å"writers† and â€Å"the information of books. † Writers, (that is, writers of propaganda), according to Locke, are the enemy—the ones who attempt to push their ideas onto others, rather than presenting impartial information. The information of books is Locke’s way of referring to the ideas and facts within books that the individual is responsible for learning by using his reason. The individual must be able to discern which information belongs to the facts, and which belongs to the impressions of the writer. The individual person’s response to his experiences is also the foundation of his moral judgment. The decisions he will make in the future will be based on the experiences he’s had throughout his life. One critic describes Locke’s view of this concept; †¦ Locke conceives of moral goodness as a conventional relation, then it stands to reason†¦ goodness and even moral goodness do not exist independently of what we believe about them and therefore cannot be the property of an action nor can they be thought to have a nature that exists independently of our beliefs. (Zinaich 171) Essentially, Locke’s concept of morality is that it is defined by the self. This is a tremendous revelation in an era that defined its morality based on what the Church claimed was moral or immoral. There are limits to this independence of morality, however, as a biographer of Locke describes: â€Å"The ‘state of nature’ is a ‘state of liberty’, but it is not a ‘state of license’, for even though people in it are not bound by the will of another, they are subject to the divinely ordained ‘law of nature’† (Woolhouse 185). Essentially, while an individual is free to define his own morals under Locke’s philosophy regarding the â€Å"self,† the limits lie in whether or not the morality crosses over into the rights of another person. In a â€Å"state of nature,† every man is free to create his own morals, but those morals cannot infringe on the rights of others. This is a rule that not only man must obey, but that, according to Locke, he must understand—a principle, which he describes in his Second Treatise on Civil Government: â€Å"Is a man under the law of Nature? What made him free of that law? What gave him a free disposing of his property, according to his own will, within the compass of that law? I answer, and estate wherein he might be supposed capably to know that law, that so he might keep his actions within the bounds of it† (Locke 102). As this passage describes, in order for a man to step outside of the â€Å"natural law,† he must step into the overlapping laws of the men around him. This, in effect, is what leads to Locke’s revolutionary principles of government. Prior to the Enlightenment, government belonged entirely to the King, based on the principles of â€Å"divine right†: â€Å"The Enlightenment encouraged people to participate in government and to rethink old ideas like feudalism and primogeniture† (Dowling). John Locke played an extremely large role in this shift: â€Å"Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury became Lord Chancellor in 1672† (â€Å"John Locke†). Locke’s friend Shaftesbury was the primary reason that Locke became involved in politics and began writing about government, but when Shaftesbury fell away from popularity, Locke soon found himself in exile. Locke wrote even more voraciously about government during his time in exile, however, establishing the principles of self-governance that would so tremendously alter the ideas of government current at that time. In his Second Treatise on Civil Government, he defines society and the beginning of government: â€Å"†¦ that which begins and actually constitutes any political society is nothing but the consent of any number of freemen capably of majority, to unite and incorporate into such a society. And this is that, and that only, which did or could give beginning to any lawful government in the world† (Locke 125). As Locke describes, the foundation of a government begins with free men in the â€Å"state of nature† who come together and can agree, in majority, on which morals they are to follow. Also, â€Å"Locke maintained that the original state of nature was happy and characterized by reason and tolerance. He further maintained that all human beings, in their natural state, were equal and free to pursue life, health, liberty, and possessions; and that these were inalienable rights† (Landry), and, â€Å"Locke defended the proposition that government rests on popular consent and rebellion is permissible when government subverts the ends (the protection of life, liberty, and property) for which it is established† (Landry). In other words, because government is based on the agreement and majority of people coming together—the self-governance of the people is the foundation of the government—the government has a responsibility to protect the rights of its people. These revolutionary ideas not only altered the ideas that were circulating amongst the people during the Age of Enlightenment, but also directly altered the course of history. As Locke’s biographer states: â€Å"†¦ the support which the Treatises gave to William’s actions against James is exhibited in what reads as a commentary on the events of the revolution itself: James’s leaving the country, the request to William to take over the administration, the eventual offer of the throne, and the transformation of the Convention into a Parliament† (Woolhouse 276). Because William of Orange and his wife Mary were supporters of Parliament, and through their support of Parliament, supporters of self-governance by the people, the Treatises by John Locke were tremendously influential in the support that both preceded and followed William and Mary’s ascension to the throne of England: â€Å"†¦ the Glorious Revolution of 1688†¦ marks the point at which the balance of power in the English government passed from the King to the Parliament. Locke returned to England in 1688 on board the royal yacht, accompanying Princess Mary on her voyage to join her husband† (Uzgalis). Because of the tremendous support that came with Locke’s Treatises and the rule of William and Mary, John Locke was finally able to return home to England from exile. The independence of thought that led to the new perception of self, which subsequently led to new ideas about the kind of relationship that the government should have with its people, also had a tremendous effect on the ideas governing perception of religion. In addition to political strife, there was a great deal of religious tension in England, particularly between various Protestant sects. During the Enlightenment, however, the principles of reason, established by John Locke, began to become the foundation of religious tolerance: The Enlightenment is held to be the source of critical ideas, such as the centrality of freedom, democracy, and reason as primary values of society. This view argues that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the market mechanism and capitalism, the scientific method, religious tolerance, and the organization of states into self-governing republics through democratic means. (â€Å"Age of Enlightenment†) This religious tolerance, and the encouragement of independent reason, however, lessened the power that the Church had over the people: â€Å"It was the Enlightenment†¦ that dislodged the ecclesiastical establishment from central control of cultural and intellectual life† (Rempel). Simply put, the infatuation with reason that took hold of the people during the Enlightenment took power away from the Church and put it into the hands of thinkers like John Locke, who encouraged independent thought. As mentioned before, John Locke was an avid supporter of intellectual independence. John Locke had an agenda for his principles of reason—to liberate the people around him from oppression of the intellectual and spiritual kind as well: â€Å"Much of Locke’s work is characterized by opposition to authoritarianism. This opposition is both on the level of the individual person and on the level of institutions such as government and church† (Uzgalis). As Uzgalis states, John Locke was determined to release the people from the authoritative grasp of the Church, which controlled much of their thinking, and answered all of their questions with answers that would add to their power. One of the primary issues regarding the Church’s control over the people, however, lay in the issues that divided the different denominations of Christianity that populated England at the time. Each sect was fighting with the other, claiming that their faith was the true path—the ONLY path. John Locke had an argument to this theory, which he described in detail in his work, the Reasonability of Christianity: †¦ if all sinners shall be condemned, but such as have gracious allowance made them; and so are justified by God, for believing Jesus to be the Messiah, and so taking him for their King; whom they are resolved to obey, to the utmost of their power, ‘What shall become of all mankind, who lived before Our Savior’s time; who never heard of his name, and consequently could not believe in him? ‘ To this the answer is so obvious and natural, that one would wonder how any reasonable man should think it worth the urging. No body was, or can be, required to believe what was never proposed to him to believe. (Locke 52) Locke simply states that those people who did not know of Jesus, because they lived before his time, cannot be held accountable or punished for not believing in him because, to them, he did not yet exist. This was a revolutionary idea because nearly every Christian during Locke’s time believed that a soul could not reach heaven unless the person belonging to that soul fully believed that Jesus was the Messiah, or savior. Locke takes this tolerance of pre-Christians, however, and extends it even to those in his contemporary society, and argues for tolerance not only of who people worship, but of how they worship as well: â€Å"To be worshipped in spirit and in truth, with application of mind and sincerity of heart, was what God henceforth only required. Magnificent temples, and confinement to certain places, were now no longer necessary for his worship, which by a pure heart might be performed any where† (Locke 68). In other words, Locke argues that worshipping God is a far more personal endeavor, rather than one that is meant to be accomplished in a specific time and place, with a specific group of people. So long as the worshipper is steady in his faith, and uses his faith to support his reason, then he becomes a â€Å"reasonable Christian,† which is the highest aim. The Age of Enlightenment opened the door for countless opportunities in even every aspect of daily life in Western Civilization. Its devotion to reason and to the human mind’s power of deductive reasoning spawned hundreds of advancements in technology, including a more advanced printing press, which increased literacy rates, due to the accessibility of reading material, and allowed ideas to circulate and spread farther than anyone had imagined. The sudden urbanization, due to the fledgling Industrial Revolution, also brought people closer together and ideas from all over the world began coming together and mixing, until they themselves became new ideas, and expanded. Every change during the Age of Enlightenment—the new sense of individual identity that the people suddenly gained, the new principles of government, and what the relationship of the government to the people should be like, the release of power from the King and the Church to the people—all of these ideas, which would become the foundation of the American Revolution, were founded on the single principle of devotion to individual’s power to reason. The leader of this liberation and revolution of the mind, as described in detail above, was John Locke. John Locke’s ideas impressed the leaders of England so much, that at a very early age, he became swept into the world of politics, and almost overnight began to change the way people thought. Even when his powerful friends fell out of favor, and Locke was forced into exile, he only grew more influential, and his ideas of man’s power of deductive reasoning and consciousness as the defining attribute of the thing called â€Å"self,† the principles of self-governance of the people, which led to the Glorious Revolution and the placement of William and Mary on the throne of England, and the shift of power from the King to Parliament, and finally, the importance of religious tolerance, based on reason, are the prime examples of John Locke’s tremendous influence on the Age of Enlightenment. John Locke’s convictions led to some of the most sweeping changes in the collective mind of humanity, and led to the independence of the United States. All of these changes, however, belong to a tiny little word called â€Å"reason,† which can only be found in the individual. Essentially, John Locke’s commitment to reason, was really a commitment to the self—and look at what such commitment wrought from the Age of Enlightenment! Annotated Bibliography â€Å"About the John Locke Foundation. † John Locke Foundation. 2009. 29 Apr. 2009 . This website presents the effects that the philophies and works of John Locke are having on contemporary society. â€Å"Age of Englightenment. † Wikipedia. 29 Apr. 2009. 29 Apr. 2009 . This website offers a generalized overview of the Age of Enlightenment, of which Locke is considered one of the greatest contributors. While Wikipedia is not considered an infallible source, the information contained therein is consistent with the information in other sources. Brians, Paul. â€Å"The Enlightenment. † Washington State University. 18 May 2000. 29 Apr. 2009 . This website provides a very concise overview of the Enlightenment period, for the sake of perspective. Dowling, Mike. â€Å"The Enlightenment. † The Enlightenment. 1 May 2002. 29 Apr. 2009 . This website offers a very concise overview of the Age of Enlightenment, as well as the effects that it had in all European countries. â€Å"John Locke. † Wikipedia. 29 Apr. 2009. 29 Apr. 2009 . This website was used for a generalized overview of the life and works of John Locke, to give a sense of perspective. While Wikipedia is not a guaranteed source, the information contained on this website is consistent with the information from other â€Å"more reliable† sources. â€Å"John Locke (1632-1704). † Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2006. 29 Apr. 2009 . This website provides a very generalized overview of John Locke’s life and philosphies, as well as his works. Landry, Peter. â€Å"John Locke: The Philosopher of Freedom. † Biographies. 2006. 29 Apr. 2009 . This website provides an extremely concise and brief description of Locke’s life, philosophies and works. Locke, John. Conduct of the Understanding. The Works of John Locke. Vol. 3. London: Scientia Verlag Aalen, 1963. 203-289. This work of John Locke’s details the ways in which a man is expected, in the author’s mind, to pursue knowledge and understanding with integrity. Locke, John. The Reasonableness of Christianity. Ed. I. T. Ramsey. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1958. In this work, John Locke argues for Christianity and the belief in God, who gave man reason. Locke, John. The Second Treatise on Civil Government. On Politics and Education. Ed. Walter J. Black. Roslyn, NY: Walter J. Black, Inc. , 1947. 71-202. This work by John Locke describes the author’s views on how government should function in society. â€Å"Locke Time Line. † John Locke (1632-1704). Oregon State University. 29 Apr. 2009 . This website provided a concise timeline of John Locke’s life and the emergence of his works to be compared against the era in which he was living. Rempel, Gerhard, PhD. â€Å"The Age of Enlightenment. † Lectures. WNEC. 29 Apr. 2009 . This website offers a detailed description of the Age of Enlightenment, organized in a fashion consistent with a class lecture, so it is very easy to understand. Uzgalis, William. â€Å"John Locke. † Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 29 Apr. 2009 . This website was used to provide a somewhat detailed overview of John Locke’s life and works. Its reliability is guaranteed by the Metaphysics Research Lab of Stanford University. Woolhouse, Roger. Locke, A Biography. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. This is a comprehensive biography of John Locke, giving greater understanding of Locke’s personal life and its effects on the more public spheres in which he existed. Zinaich, Samuel, Jr. John Locke’s Moral Revolution. Boulder, CO: University Press of America, Inc. , 2006. This book argues that John Locke’s philosophies move from â€Å"laws of nature† to â€Å"moral relativism. † While this is a work of literary criticism, it still offers valid and unbiased points about the works of John Locke.

How did Transportation Change During the Industrial Revolution

How did Transportation Change During the Industrial Revolution? The universe had gone through two industrial revolutions. The first revolution began in the 1700s. And the 2nd revolution happened in the 1860s. Both of the revolutions were the most of import periods in the history of human society because they influenced about every facet of life and particularly brought the universe wholly new sorts of transits. Steam engine, waterway, route, and railway experienced chiefly betterment during the first revolution, and the 2nd revolution brought the innovations of car and aeroplane ; both they played an indispensable function in the development of transit in history. The steam engine was one of the most critical constituents that had been invented during the first industrial revolution. It contributed a batch to the betterment of transit. Thomas Newcomen was the first individual who invented the steam engine. However, the usage of the steam engine was expensive and non efficient. ( World History text edition ) Until 1765, James Watt, one of the greatest subscribers to transit, reformed the steam engine to be more efficient and consume less fuel by adding a separate capacitor to Newcomen’s engine. Watt’s betterment had saved about 75 per centum of the fuel that had antecedently been used by the engine. ( Kendra Bolon ) After the betterment, the steam engine had been used loosely on the other transits, such as steam ship and steam engine. The steam engine non merely improved the manner of transporting, but besides the quality of life. For illustration, people could go by taking locomotor and steam ship. Furthermore, they could bask th e life by watching the landscape during the trip. Therefore, the steam engine was the most unbelievable transit in the universe. Roadss, canals, and railroads were three major constituents of transit improved during the first industrial revolution. Peoples used the roads as the basic manner to transport the goods from one topographic point to another. Roadss were in really bad fix before the first revolution, and it were non efficient for people to transport goods. ( World History text edition ) John MacAdam, Thomas Telford, and John Metcalfe all developed the new roads building techniques. Thomas Telford made new foundations in roads with big level rocks. John MacAdam equipped roadbeds with a bed of big rocks ; hence, people could transport goods on a showery twenty-four hours. Canal was another critical portion of transits, which allowed goods to be transported through a series of semisynthetic waterways. Transporting goods by canal lowered the hazards of besotted merchandises during path. Furthermore, a canal flatboat could transport more merchandises than the other signifiers of transit during that clip. C anal besides cost less money for transporting ware. For the ground of transporting heavy goods from topographic point to topographic point, the betterment of railroad began in 1800, which made a great spring in transporting engineering in human history. The improved steam engine led the running locomotor with decently powered technique of turn overing. The betterment of railroads allowed the towns and metropoliss to turn quickly. In the mid-18Thursday, Abraham Darby made a plate manner of dramatis personae Fe on top of tracks that allowed the furnaces working and able to raise the Fe home base. In 1789, William Jessop developed an â€Å"L† shaped rail which held the waggon on the path. Goods could be transferred within a short sum of clip, which helped to further the agricultural and fishing industries. The engine was capable of transporting ternary sum of goods compared to the horse-pulled waggons. ( Mrs. Abiah Darby ) The betterment of route, canal, and railway changed the manner of transporting, the sum and distance of transporting goods increased significantly and affected how people lived consequently. The car and aeroplane were the two most unbelievable signifiers of transits that were been invented during the 2nd industrial revolution in the 1860s. Car was important signifier of transit since it affected the whole universe. The car was foremost invented by Karl Benz in 1886. Later on, in 1908, Henry Ford made the car low-cost for people by presenting the assembly line. ( World History text edition ) Automobile enabled people to travel anyplace they wanted to at any clip. It’s the most convenient tool for people to travel. As for the other of import innovation, aeroplane, was built in 1903 by Wilbur and Orville Wright. ( World History text edition ) Around 400 BC, Archytas was reputed as the first individual designed and built the first automotive winging device. While the Wright brothers made the first successful attempt to transport a adult male rose by aeroplane. The first aeroplane flew of course at even velocity, and descended without harm. Although the flight lasted merely 59 seconds, it marked an of import start of the aircraft industry. The visual aspect of car changed the whole universe wholly in that it provided a convenient and low-cost manner to transport and travel for people. The creative activity of aeroplane broadens the range and distance of the transit, which may transports riders and goods across continents and land. These two innovations both brought important influence to people. In decision, during the first and 2nd industrial revolutions, transit had gone through dramatic alteration and betterment. It non merely brought effectual and efficient manner of transporting, but besides influenced and shaped people’s life, about every facet in people’s day-to-day life. With the progress of engineering, transit progressed. The steam engine led to the application of locomotor and steamboat, which increased transporting capacity and therefore facilitated more production machines for fabrication in other industries. Trade enlargement was fostered by the debut of canals, improved roads and railroads. The innovation of car grounded the basic manner of transit for people while the aeroplane provided a faster manner from topographic point to topographic point. The first and 2nd industrial revolution marked a turning point in human history, and transit played a critical function impacting people’s life socially and economically. Bibliography: Bolon, Kendra.The Steam Engine. N.p. : Kendra Bolon, 2001. N. pag. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.history.rochester.edu/steam/thurston/1878/ . Web. Bustamante, Crystal. Transportation during the Industrial Revolution. N.p. : Crystal Bustamante, 2009. N. pag. Web. 26 Jan. 2009. Bulter, Scott, Keats, Thedawnbringer, Hedleygb, and Peter. How has conveyance changed since the Industrial Revolution? N.p. : n.p. , n.d. N. pag. Web. 13 Nov. 2013. Industrial revolution research. N.p. : HTML5 UP, n.d. N. pag. Web.v Mack, Pamela E. Transportation. N.p. : n.p. , 2002. N. pag. Web. 27 Sept. 2002. Roadss, Canals and Railways – the Transport revolution. N.p. : n.p. , UK. N. pag. Web. 2013. The Industrial Revolution: 1750-1900. N.p. : n.p. , n.d. N. pag.KCCIS. Web. 14 Nov. 2013. Transportation. N.p. : n.p. , n.d. N. pag. Web. 22 Nov. 2013.

women in Pompeii essays

women in Pompeii essays The ancient city of Pompeii is best known for being covered by an erupting volcano and being almost forgotten. From the time the city was rediscovered in the 1700s scientists and archeologists have managed to piece together evidence to show not just how people died but how they lived. We now know that before the eruption of Mt Vesuvius on August 24 79 AD Pompeii was a resort town. From the remains of Pompeii scholars have deducted the socioeconomic, religious and political life of Pompeiis last inhabitants. Pompeii was a city where women declared themselves the equal of men. Women could own land, operate businesses, be priestesses and were often educated. Despite these "equalities" Pompeiian women were still mostly "owned" by men and from birth knew their position. New born boys were placed at the fathers feet while newborn girls were given straight to the nurse. Most girls were bought up by their mothers at home learning weaving and other domestic skills. Upper-class girls however were taught to read and write either at school or at home by slave tutors. It was believed by some that educated women made better wives and mothers. Literacy amongst the upper class (both women and men) was a symbol of status and respect. One of the most famous Pompeiian artifacts the fresco of the merchant Terentius Neo and his wife, depicts her holding a wax tablet and a stylus. Girls were considered grown up by the age of 14 when marriages were usually arranged by their family with the objective of uniting "good" families. At this time a woman would leave her fathers ownership and become the property of her husband. As many women as possible were kept married and bearing children. Women were expected to be married by the age of 20 and it was law to remarry after the death of ones husband. As at this time in Roman history there were fewer females than males so women could marry and remarry with ease. A woman...

Biography of Stephen Hawking, Physicist and Cosmologist

Biography of Stephen Hawking, Physicist and Cosmologist Stephen Hawking (January 8, 1942–March 14, 2018) was a world-renowned cosmologist and physicist, especially esteemed for overcoming an extreme physical disability to pursue his groundbreaking scientific work. He was a bestselling author whose books made complex ideas accessible to the general public. His theories provided deep insights into the connections between quantum physics and relativity, including how those concepts might be united in explaining fundamental questions related to the development of the universe and the formation of black holes. Fast Facts: Stephen Hawking Known For:  Cosmologist, physicist, best-selling science writerAlso Known As:  Steven William HawkingBorn:  January 8, 1942 in Oxfordshire, EnglandParents: Frank and Isobel HawkingDied: March 14, 2018 in Cambridge, EnglandEducation: St Albans School, B.A., University College, Oxford, Ph.D., Trinity Hall, Cambridge, 1966Published Works:  A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes, The Universe in a Nutshell, On the Shoulders of Giants, A Briefer History of Time, The Grand Design, My Brief HistoryAwards and Honors:  Fellow of the  Royal Society, the  Eddington  Medal, the Royal Societys Hughes Medal, the  Albert Einstein  Medal, the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society, Member of the  Pontifical Academy of Sciences, the Wolf Prize in Physics, the Prince of Asturias Awards in Concord, the Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize of the American Physical Society, the Michelson Morley Award of Case Western Reserve University, the Copley Medal of the  Ro yal SocietySpouses: Jane Wilde, Elaine MasonChildren: Robert, Lucy, TimothyNotable Quote: â€Å"Most of the threats we face come from the progress we’ve made in science and technology. We are not going to stop making progress, or reverse it, so we must recognize the dangers and control them. I’m an optimist, and I believe we can.† Early Life Stephen Hawking was born on January 8, 1942, in Oxfordshire, England, where his mother had been sent for safety during the German bombings of London of World War II. His mother Isobel Hawking was an Oxford graduate and his father Frank Hawking was a medical researcher. After Stephens birth, the family reunited in London, where his father headed the division of parasitology at the National Institute for Medical Research.  The family then moved to St. Albans so that Stephens father could pursue medical research at the nearby Institute for Medical Research in Mill Hill. Education and Medical Diagnosis Stephen Hawking attended school in St. Albans, where he was an unexceptional student. His brilliance was much more apparent in his years at Oxford University. He specialized in physics and graduated with first-class honors despite his relative lack of diligence. In 1962, he continued his education at Cambridge  University, pursuing a Ph.D. in cosmology. At age 21, a year after beginning his doctoral program, Stephen Hawking was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (also known as motor neuron disease, ALS, and Lou Gehrigs disease). Given only three years to live, he has written that this prognosis helped motivate him in his physics work. There is little doubt that his ability to remain actively engaged with the world through his scientific work helped him persevere in the face of the disease. The support of family and friends were equally key. This is vividly portrayed in the dramatic film The Theory of Everything. The ALS Progresses As his illness progressed, Hawking became less mobile and began using a wheelchair. As part of his condition, Hawking eventually  lost his ability to speak, so he utilized a device capable of translating his eye movements (since he could  no longer utilize a keypad) to speak in a digitized voice. In addition to his keen mind within physics, he gained respect throughout the world as a science communicator. His achievements are deeply impressive on their own, but some of the reason he is so universally respected was his ability to accomplish so much while suffering the severe debility caused by ALS. Marriage and Children Just before his diagnosis, Hawking met Jane Wilde, and the two were married in 1965. The couple had three children before separating. Hawking later married Elaine Mason in 1995 and they divorced in 2006. Career as Academic and Author Hawking stayed on at Cambridge after his graduation, first as a research fellow and then as a professional fellow. For most of his academic career, Hawking served as the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge, a position once held by Sir Isaac Newton. Following a long tradition, Hawking retired from this post at age 67, in the spring of 2009, though he continued his research at the universitys cosmology institute. In 2008 he also accepted a position as a visiting researcher at Waterloo, Ontarios Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics. In 1982 Hawking began work on a popular book on cosmology. By 1984 he had produced the first draft of  A Brief History of Time, which he published in 1988 after some medical setbacks. This book remained on the Sunday Times bestsellers list for 237 weeks. Hawkings even more accessible A Briefer History of Time was published in 2005. Fields of Study Hawkings major research was in the areas of theoretical cosmology, focusing on the evolution of the universe as governed by the laws of general relativity. He is most well-known for his work in the study of black holes. Through his work, Hawking was able to: Prove  that singularities are general features of spacetime.Provide  mathematical proof that information which fell into a black hole was lost.Demonstrate  that black holes evaporate through Hawking radiation. Death On March 14, 2018, Stephen Hawking died in his home in Cambridge, England. He was 76. His ashes were placed in London’s Westminster Abbey between the final resting places of Sir Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin. Legacy Stephen Hawking made large contributions as a scientist, science communicator, and as a heroic example of how enormous obstacles can be overcome. The  Stephen Hawking Medal for Science Communication is a prestigious award that recognizes the merit of popular science on an international level. Thanks to his distinctive appearance, voice, and popularity,  Stephen Hawking is often represented in popular culture. He made appearances on the television shows The Simpsons and Futurama, as well as having a cameo on Star Trek: The Next Generation in 1993. The Theory of Everything, a biographical drama film about Hawkings life, was released in 2014. Sources â€Å"Stephen Hawking.†Ã‚  Famous Scientists.Redd, Nola Taylor. â€Å"Stephen Hawking Biography (1942-2018).†Ã‚  Space.com, Space, 14 Mar. 2018.â€Å"Stephen William Hawking.†Ã‚  Stephen Hawking (1942-2018).

A critical analysis of software testing tools and techniques Essay

A critical analysis of software testing tools and techniques - Essay Example It is so important that half of the development of any software must be dedicated to it, as a rule of thumb. Some people believe that software testing must be done at the end of software development, as a final stage. However, it is important to note that testing must be done at all stages of development. It must be integrated into it and must be a continual process throughout. For example, once requirements have been gathered, design must be created and implemented. Once each module is developed, it should be tested immediately for any bugs or defects. Or if prototypes are to be delivered to the customer, after each delivery, the software must be tested. Software testing should not be left to end; after all the modules of a project have been developed. How and when testing is carried out also depends on customer requirements and desired results, the Project Manger’s way of working, and the Project Lifecycle model. Software testing is still considered to be an art because there is still limited understanding of it. The reason for this complexity of software testing is that there are so many testing principles, techniques and tools available that can be used to carry out this critical activity. One must know which ones are most suitable in accordance with the software being developed. Software testing tools include source, embedded, functional, performance, java, link and HTML, API, requirements management, security and many other test tools (Applied Testing and Technology, 2009). Software testing techniques vary as the software travels through its stages of development lifecycle. However, software testing techniques can be roughly divided into unit testing, integration testing, system testing and user acceptance testing (Luo, 2009). The general goal of all these testing tools and techniques is to produce a high quality software that meets customer requirements, by developing it in controlled circumstances (Luo, 2009). As a

ISMG Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 5

ISMG - Essay Example Big organizations preying on him might decide to give him a deal that he cannot turn down, thus leaving the organization. Subsequently, the organization would lose one of its lead coders. While looking for means of retaining is important, understanding that anything could happen to him, such a tragedy would help them think about this problem soberly. Although he had turned down a number of offers, it does not imply that he would live with IVK forever. One day he could decide to go, or retire. In any case, one day he has to leave. The best way of solving the problem therefore, is looking for individuals talented enough whose efforts when combined could make a substitute. 2. While hiring IT personnel, it is important to put into consideration a number of issues. Skills of the individual are important as IT as a profession requires adequate skills. Talent is yet another important element that managers should look at while determining the kind of people to hire in the IT department. Fina lly, the management needs to consider the experience of an individual while handling different systems or performing certain tasks. 3. Organizations use two different tradeoff methods while locating their IT departments, centralizing them or geographically decentralizing them. While each has its own advantages, it has its own limitations as well. While centralizing enables the monitoring of the operations as well as proper utilization of organizational resources, it has little impact on the depart5ment it is required most. However, it saves the organization additional expenses in maintaining the various branches. On the other hand, decentralization has a greater impact on the areas IT services are required, but increases organizational expenditures. Moreover, there is minimal supervision of the various departments. Chapter 16 1. Different organizations have different ways of drawing their budgets, and their investment plans. The level of expenditure in an organization ion a particu lar department in most cases depends on the size of the organization’s department. For instance, an organization that uses IT extensively could have an extensive expensive expenditure budget on IT, while another could have bigger budget for a different department. An organization should be willing to spend extensively on the particular department generating more income. However, there should be a limit, especially with reference to the organizational budget. While innovation is important to a manufacturing organization, it v could have insignificant impact to a different organization. As such, the ideal ration between the amounts that a firm spends on IT maintenance versus innovation projects depends on the organizational capacity and the importance of the two. 2. The kid’s toolkit approach method, if applied carefully by a manager could help them in avoiding mistakes while determining the best models to apply for their organizations. Although not a certified method, i t makes sense. For instance, by arguing that a manager’s ideas and thoughts were like a toolkit, which they should keep to themselves, it meant that managers, despite having the role of making the most important decisions in an organization, were not always right. Although they perceive their models as being better and superior than others, the geniuses of these is only possible through actual application in an organization